1B - How to make your paragraphs even stronger - Theory
Like with any section of the A-Level, your work can be improved through the addition of relevant theory. Here are a few basic theories/theorists who made observations about language change that you could easily include in your essays if the opportunity arises:
Deborah Cameron
Deborah Cameron argues that debates about language are often about social control rather than language itself. She suggests that criticism of language is frequently a form of “moral panic”, and she calls attempts to control how others speak “verbal hygiene.”
Therefore, if you see criticism in your unseen texts of features such as the discourse marker “like”, slang, or non-standard grammar, you could apply Deborah Cameron by saying:
“Deborah Cameron would argue that the criticism of ‘like’ here is an example of verbal hygiene. The negative reaction is less about linguistic decline and more about social attitudes towards young speakers, particularly young women. I agree/disagree with this because…”
Penelope Eckert
Penelope Eckert argues that language change is driven by social identity and communities of practice. She claims adolescents are central to language innovation and that linguistic features develop within tight-knit peer groups before spreading more widely.
Therefore, if you see examples of teen slang, sociolect, or group-specific vocabulary in your unseen texts, you could apply Penelope Eckert by saying:
“Penelope Eckert would suggest that the use of this slang reflects a community of practice, where language is being used to construct identity. The feature is likely spreading through peer networks rather than randomly appearing. I agree/disagree with this because…”
David Crystal
David Crystal argues that technology is a major driver of language change, and that the internet has created new varieties of English such as “Netspeak.” He suggests that abbreviations and non-standard spellings are efficient adaptations, not laziness.
Therefore, if you see abbreviations, emojis, acronyms like “LOL”, or lack of capitalisation in your unseen texts, you could apply David Crystal by saying:
“David Crystal would claim that the use of text speak here reflects how technology drives language change. The writer is adapting language to suit digital communication. I agree/disagree with this because…”
William Labov
William Labov argues that language change happens through social groups, particularly younger speakers, and that change often begins within specific social classes before spreading. He also highlights how speakers style-shift depending on context.
Therefore, if you see features associated with youth language, sociolect, or variation depending on audience in your unseen texts, you could apply William Labov by saying:
“William Labov would argue that this feature reflects language change led by younger speakers or a particular social group. It may represent change in progress spreading through the community. I agree/disagree with this because…”
Peter Trudgill
Peter Trudgill argues that language change is driven by social contact. He suggests that dialect contact leads to levelling, particularly in urban and mobile societies, and that new communities often simplify language features.
Therefore, if you see reduced regional features, accent levelling, or a mix of dialect forms in your unseen texts, you could apply Peter Trudgill by saying:
“Peter Trudgill would suggest that this reflects dialect levelling caused by increased mobility and social contact. The speaker’s language may be becoming less regionally marked. I agree/disagree with this because…”
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